Trait Anxiety

Trait anxiety is a construct reflected in nearly models of personality and refers to a relatively stable disposition within the individual to judge a broad range of environmental events as potentially threatening.

From: Functioning Psychology , 2011

Case Conceptualization and Treatment: Children and Adolescents

Shaadee One thousand. Samimy , ... Theodore P. Beauchaine , in Comprehensive Clinical Psychology (Second Edition), 2022

five.08.1.1.two.two Trait Anxiety

Trait anxiety is also a normally distributed private departure that affects expression of CPs. Those who score high on trait anxiety are behaviorally inhibited, wary in novel situations, and tend toward precaution over risk-taking ( Corr and McNaughton, 2012). Like trait impulsivity, trait anxiety is highly heritable (e.g., Franić et al., 2010). Nevertheless, its neural substrates are distributed across a different brain network including the hippocampus, periaqueductal gray, medial hypothalamus, amygdala, and broader septohippocampal system (Gray and McNaughton, 2000). Through direct inputs and modulating interconnections with the striatum, these structures affect reward learning, punishment sensitivity, and acquisition of other operant responses (Dong et al., 2017).

Trait anxiety must be considered when discussing treatments for CPs because information technology modulates trait impulsivity in both real-earth and laboratory settings. Males with CPs who experience little trait anxiety, as indicated by callous-unemotional and psychopathic traits, likewise show blunted amygdalar responses to empathy- and fear-eliciting stimuli, and engage in higher rates of both current and futurity delinquency (e.one thousand., Blair, 2013; Frick et al., 2014). In contrast, comorbid anxiety in childhood—despite its associations with intrapersonal distress—predicts better responses to PT among children with early onset CPs (see Beauchaine et al., 2005). By adolescence, comorbid feet too predicts ameliorate peer relations, fewer law contacts, and lower rates of aggression (Walker et al., 1991). Finally, trait anxiety is associated with amend controlling on lab tasks that reliably differentiate between externalizing samples and controls (Haines et al., 2020).

Neural structures implicated in trait feet, such every bit the amygdala (see above), also mature in childhood but may be responsive to prevention and early intervention given that early experience helps decide amygdala responding afterward in life (eastward.k., Farber et al., 2019). Of note, in contrast to findings with older samples, preschoolers with CPs who score depression on feet are simply every bit responsive to combined PT and kid treatment equally controls (Webster-Stratton et al., 2013). Even so, more work is needed in this area.

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Anxiety and Feet Disorders

K. Wiedemann , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

v.2.i State and trait anxiety

When investigating human feet, the distinction between state and trait feet is most of import. State anxiety can be defined every bit a transitory emotional state consisting of feelings of anticipation, nervousness, and physiological sequelae such as an increased heart rate or respiration (Spielberger 1979). Whereas everyone tin can experience country anxiety occasionally, in that location are big differences among individuals in the frequency, duration, and severity. Land feet can be determined past several rating instruments adult in the past. Trait anxiety represents a fairly stable feature related to personality. Experiencing more than frequently state anxiety combined with a general view of the earth as being threatening and unsafe is used as marker of trait anxiety. The initiation and maintenance of trait anxiety have been related to several factors equally outlined to a higher place.

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Evolution of Hormone-Behavior Relationships

C. Nasca , ... B.Due south. McEwen , in Hormones, Brain and Behavior (Third Edition), 2017

5.eighteen.four.two.1.3 Stress-Induced Low-like Behaviors

In humans, anxiety trait is a well-known risk factor to develop depression, and feet disorders and depression present a high comorbidity (Sandi and Richter-Levin, 2009 ). Studies performed with rats genetically selected and bred for several generations for their high or depression trait feet as characterized, among others, in the elevated plus maze were shown to brandish highly divergent passive and active coping behaviors, respectively, post-obit astute stress exposure. Although the behavioral information confirmed higher vulnerability in high anxiety rats to display low-like behaviors, their HPA responses were surprisingly higher in low anxious rats ( Frank et al., 2006). Importantly, nongenetically selected high anxious rats were as well found to present increased vulnerability to manifest reduced copying way (e.g., increased floating fourth dimension in the forced swim test) when progressively exposed to stress (Castro et al., 2012). Stress consisted on a chronic unpredictable stress protocol whose consequences were evaluated at either 2 or four weeks from its onset.

Information technology is worth noting when the contribution of the combination of anxiety and exploration traits was examined, 2 opposite phenotypes were identified. Whereas the behavioral profile based on combined high anxiety and low exploration was revealed as a peculiarly vulnerable phenotype, in terms of behavior and corticosterone responsiveness, the low feet and low exploration profile was identified as especially resistant to display behavioral alterations (Castro et al., 2012).

Interestingly, in addition to the higher up-discussed rodent studies that confirm anxiety trait every bit a take chances factor for psychopathology were performed in rat outbred strains (Wistar and Sprague–Dawley rats), contempo show in inbred mice (C57Bl/6) has started unraveling the beingness of a similar association betwixt preexisting feet levels and stress vulnerability (Nasca et al., 2015a). Specifically, mice were profiled as high- and low-susceptible phenotypes based on their anxietylike behavior in the light–dark exam either under basal atmospheric condition or soon afterward acute exposure to restraint stress. Their neurobiological profile (in detail, the identification of a higher expression of the MR in the hippocampal dentate gyrus in high susceptible animals) suggested that this a priori high feet-related phenotype is predictive of differential vulnerability to develop depressive-like behaviors (i.e., reduced sucrose preference, increased floating in the forced swim test, impaired coat fur state) following exposure to chronic unpredictable stress (Nasca et al., 2015a).

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The Neuropsychology of Impulsive Antisocial Awareness Seeking Personality Traits: From Dopamine to Hippocampal Function?

A.D. Pickering , in On the Psychobiology of Personality, 2004

4 Searching for the Personality Correlates of BAS-Induced Motivational Effects

One recent study attempted to explore the motivational effects of stimuli associated with reward on task operation (Pickering et al. 2001). Nosotros did so because such motivational effects are part of the function of the BAS. Stimuli associated with reward are supposed to activate the BAS; if the BAS is activated and so one result will be to motivate any ongoing goal-directed behaviour. Thus, a participant performing an experimental task will practice so more rapidly in the presence of a BAS-activating stimulus. Moreover, a discipline with a high level of a BAS-related personality trait, henceforth referred to as a high BAS private, should show a stronger motivational issue than a person with a low level of a BAS-related personality trait (low BAS individual).

The written report began past training participants to acquaintance a specific visual stimulus, e.g. a filled white triangle, with the presence of reward. Each time the reward stimulus appeared, rather than an culling shape, this signalled to the participant that he or she had gained 50 United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland pence. Training consisted of vii shape-reward exposures. Next, in the guise of a separate experiment, we familiarized the participants with a selection reaction fourth dimension (RT) task. We wanted to investigate the outcome, on choice RT functioning, of presenting the stimulus previously associated with advantage. To present the advantage stimulus we used an extended alarm stimulus on the RT trials. This warning betoken consisted of a sequence of 4 coloured circles at successive locations around the fundamental fixation cross (0.25   s per circle, appearing w, due north, due east and southward of the fixation cantankerous). On infrequent reward motivational probe RT trials, the geometric stimulus previously associated with reward was shown instead of the final circle from the alert stimulus (i.e. the reward stimulus was shown for the 0.25   s just prior to the presentation of the pick RT stimulus). The mensurate of the BAS effect induced by the reward stimulus was the extent to which the choice RT was speeded up on reward motivational probe RT trials relative to standard RT trials. High BAS individuals were predicted to show greater speeding up than depression BAS individuals.

Before nosotros began this report, nosotros felt that there was likely to be a major complexity: introducing a change to the warning stimulus sequence, even with a familiar neutral stimulus, seemed probable to bear on RTs via a mismatch detection procedure. We confirmed these suspicions in an initial experiment without reward motivational probe trials. Infrequent probe trials were used in which a familiar neutral stimulus was shown instead of the fourth circle from the standard alarm sequence. Nosotros called these trials associative mismatch (AM) probe trials. The RTs on AM probe trials were very significantly slower than RTs on standard trials. Furthermore, as we predicted from Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Pickering et al. 1997 ), we found that the extent of the slowing on AM trials was correlated with trait anxiety in the first experiment. It seemed probable that the reward motivational stimulus would create slowing due to an anxiety-related mismatch process, in addition to any BAS-related speeding up of RT. The results of the second experiment confirmed these expectations.

Effigy one shows the results from the reward motivational study. Hateful RTs are displayed for the AM probe trials and for the advantage motivational probe trials. The mean RTs for each type of probe trial are shown alongside hateful RTs from control trials. The control trials were a corresponding subset of standard trials in fact, those standard trials immediately preceding the probe trials concerned. While a stiff general mismatch effect was present in the comparison of AM probes and standard trials, around 40   msec on boilerplate, there was most no difference in RT in the comparison of reward motivational probes and standard trials. This is consistent with the idea that 2 furnishings may be cancelling each other out in the reward motivational probe trials: a mismatch result slowing RT and a reward motivational upshot speeding upwards RT. The question is whether the association with personality measures supported this interpretation?

Figure i. Hateful reaction time (RT) for probe trials and their corresponding standard trials. Annotation: AM denotes probe trials were of the associative mismatch type. REW denotes probe trials were of the reward motivational blazon. The difference between probe and standard trials was highly significant for the AM trials; the probe-standard difference was negligible for the REW trials

The study tested 40 good for you male medical students and took 4 measures of trait feet from each. The study also took 4 possible ImpASS trait measures: EPQ-P; I7-IMP; TPQ Novelty Seeking; the BAS scale. Two Extraversion-Introversion scales, EPQ-Extraversion and the OLIFE Introvertive Anhedonia scale, one were also included.

The dependent variable in this study was an RT difference measure out: the RT for a particular blazon of probe trial minus the mean RT for the corresponding standard trials. As expected, based on the first report, anxiety was related to performance on AM probe trials. Analyses revealed that performance was about strongly associated with ii of the feet measures, TPQ Harm Avoidance and the BIS scale. These two measures were combined into a single trait anxiety index (ANX). The ANX index was negatively correlated, r  =   –0.28, p  =   0.08, with the RT difference calculated using AM probe trials minus their corresponding standard trials. This relation was similar when the RT divergence was calculated using the reward motivational probe trials minus their respective standard trials, r  =   –0.27, p  =   0.09. Thus, in that location was a pocket-sized trend for the most trait anxious participants to be the least slowed down by the mismatch effect, with less broken-hearted participants experiencing greater slowing of RT by mismatch.

Therefore, the key question was which, if any, of the possible BAS-related personality traits, from the four ImpASS and two extraversion measures taken, were associated with RT changes on reward motivational probe trials, later on partialling out the anxiety-related mismatch result? This was explored past multiple regression analyses. Afterwards partialling out the effect of ANX, EPQ-Extraversion showed a significant negative correlation with the RT difference on reward motivational trials, β   =   –0.32, p  <   0.05; for ANX, β   =   –0.35, p  <   0.05. The extraversion effectremained pregnant when outliers in the RT divergence measure distribution were removed. This indicates that extraverts show a greater degree of speeding up on reward motivational probe trials than introverts, later removing the anxiety-related mismatch effect that is also present. In coordinating regression analyses with ANX and each of the other v candidate BAS-related measures none showed a meaning result. Finally, when EPQ-Extraversion and ANX were used to predict the RT difference on AM trials, the regression coefficient for EPQ-Extraversion was small and positive, β   =   0.11, p  >   0.4. These analyses farther confirm a specific association between extraversion, as measured by EPQ-Extraversion, and the motivational effect produced by secondary positive reinforcers.

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Sarcoidosis-Associated Disability

Marjolein Drent Doc, PhD , ... Jolanda De Vries PhD , in Sarcoidosis, 2019

Role of Self-Management?

The presence of depressive symptoms is a mediator of the relationship betwixt trait anxiety and fatigue. Depressive symptoms may indirectly atomic number 82 to increased symptoms equally such symptoms are associated with poor self-care (diet, practise, giving upwards smoking, medication regimens) in patients with chronic diseases. 21,30 All the same, physical symptoms, the resulting functional impairments and stress acquired by complications of the medical illness, are also likely to impose a burden on the patient's life and to provoke depression. 20

From this perspective, various researchers have rightly suggested that sarcoidosis patients may benefit from psychological interventions focusing on coping and appraisal, such as stress-reduction therapy. 53,54 In whatever instance, the basis for the interventions should exist a type of cerebral behavioral therapy. Successfully adapting to an illness enables people to piece of work or to participate in social activities and accept their limitations. 55 This has been shown in evaluations of the Stanford chronic illness self-management program, in which extensively monitored patients with chronic illnesses, who learned to manage their life better and to cope with their disease, reported improved self-rated health, less distress, less fatigue, more energy, and fewer perceived disabilities and limitations in social activities after the preparation programme. Fifty-fifty health-care costs fell. 56–58 It is interesting to speculate that this concept could as well work in sarcoidosis, but this needs to be explored.

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Measures of Bear upon Dimensions

Gregory J. Boyle , ... Carroll Eastward. Izard , in Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Constructs, 2015

Examination–Retest

Spielberger and Reheiser (2009) reported stability coefficients (ranging from .73 to .86 for the trait anxiety scale across intervals of iii to 15 weeks, whereas stability coefficients for the country scales were low (e.g., Mdn =.33 for the state anxiety scale). As expected, two-week stabilities for the country anger scale were constitute to be .27 (males) and .21 (females), while for the trait acrimony calibration they were .seventy (males) and .77 (females) – (Jacobs, Latham, & Dark-brown 1988). Thus, the STPI country scales announced to exist sensitive to transitory fluctuations in emotional states, and the stability coefficients for the country scales are considerably lower than those observed for the trait scales.

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Slumber in children with feet disorders

Organized religion Orchard , Alice M. Gregory , in Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology, 2021

Definitions and measurement

Like to sleep, anxiety can exist measured in dissimilar ways. This includes the examination of state vs. trait anxiety (i.due east., the feel of "in-the-moment" feet, compared with longer-term anxiety). There has also been some consideration of other means of conceptualizing feet, and constructs related to feet such as anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty which are believed to be underlying traits, also every bit RDoC (Research Domain Criteria) which takes a domain based arroyo and explores basic dimensions of functioning such as neural systems and behavioral dimensions. For the purpose of this article, nosotros are primarily focusing on trait feet, whereby an individual is experiencing feet over a substantial menstruation of time, and this anxiety is impairing.

Trait anxiety tin be considered on a continuum, where it is believed that each individual experiences a caste of anxiety severity, and anxiety can be measured using cocky-report questionnaire tools that give an indication of severity, some of which may also provide clinical cut off scores. Anxiety tin can also be considered every bit a discrete measurement of disorder vs. no disorder. Feet diagnosis can be identified through diagnostic nomenclature systems such every bit the DSM and ICD, which categorize a range of subtypes of feet disorder, including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), separation anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, selective mutism and feet disorder not otherwise specified. Broadly anxiety is considered to meet diagnostic criteria when a specific set of symptoms is present, and the feet is (1) impairing or distressing, (two) unusual for the child'south age, and (three) has been present for a set period of time. Post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder were originally classified as anxiety disorders in the previous version of the DSM, merely have been classified in their own categories in DSM-five.

Clinical practitioners or researchers may appraise anxiety in a range of means. Clinical or diagnostic interviews might be used to establish anxiety disorders, such as the Anxiety Disorder Interview Schedule for children (ADIS-C) which is based on the criteria set out in the DSM. However due to the time pressure and training required for such assessments, self-written report severity tools are commonly used. As with sleep questionnaires, these can be completed by children or informants such every bit parents or carers. Some anxiety questionnaires measure anxiety equally a whole e.g., the State-Trait Feet Inventory (Spielberger et al., 1973), only many include subscales e.g., the Spence Kid Anxiety Calibration (Spence, 1998) or the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (Chorpita et al., 2000). All the same, there has been some suggestion that the accuracy of anxiety subscales is questionable, probable due to the high proportion of overlapping symptoms and high levels of comorbidity (Reardon et al., 2019).

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Conceptual Framework for Clinical Decision Making in Complementary and Culling Medicine

Judith Eastward. Deutsch , Ellen Zambo Anderson , in Complementary Therapies for Physical Therapy, 2008

Stride 2: Place RELEVANT ABILITIES AND IMPAIRMENTS

Tests and Measures

Cardiovascular and Pulmonary:

Vitals: HR: 72; BP: 110/70; Auscultation: decreased jiff sounds both bases

Endurance:

6-minute walk test express because of shortness of breath observed at 2 minutes of walking

Musculoskeletal:

Intact

Neuromuscular:

Cognition: intact in all domains; Touch: Appears composed, reports distress with community ambulation (scored 41 on state-trait feet scale); Motor part: active isolated movement throughout with residual weakness at the right talocrural joint and human foot; Residue: relies on vision to maintain balance

Integumentary:

Intact

Evaluation

Based on the test the therapist determines that impairments that interfere with the client'due south mobility in the community are the following: neuromuscular and cardiopulmonary endurance, nervousness nearly community mobility, balance, and residual right talocrural joint weakness. The goals for physical therapy will be as follows:

i.

Ambulate in the community without dyspnea

2.

Manage dyspnea with an independent home program

three.

Ascend and descend two flights of stairs without dyspnea

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Knowledge and Personality

One thousand. Matthews , in Encyclopedia of Man Behavior (Second Edition), 2012

Cognitive Patterning: Feet and Neuroticism

A cognitive patterning for feet (or neuroticism) is shown in Table 2 . Again, some general themes are evident. Individuals high in trait anxiety are vulnerable to overload, especially on tasks making high demands on attention and/or working memory. Neuroticism is also associated with difficulties in managing transitions in workload. Second, anxiety may also be related to compensatory effort as the person tries to cope with the distraction associated with their ain worries. Indeed, feet may sometimes relate to enhanced performance on easy tasks. Third, anxiety relates to enhanced sensitivity to threat stimuli, as shown most directly in studies of selective attention. The emotional Stroop test requires participants to name the ink colors of threatening or other emotive words. A. Mathews and C. MacLeod pioneered research showing that anxious individuals tend to respond relatively slowly on this task, especially when the threat words lucifer their current concerns, implying a cerebral bias.

Table 2. Outline cerebral patterning for anxiety/neuroticism

Cognitive part Sample chore Event
Processing efficiency furnishings
Divided attending Concurrent math and exact memory Anxiety leads to impairment in dual-job operation (especially on secondary tasks)
Working memory Mental transformation of letter of the alphabet sequences Anxiety-related impairment increases with retention load
Resisting distraction Comprehending text with background spoken language Anxiety relates to distraction by irrelevant speech
Cognitive bias effects
Selective attention (single channel) Emotional Stroop Anxiety subjects are slow to name ink colors of threat words
Selective attention (multiple channel) 'Dot-probe' visual attending task Anxious subjects respond more speedily to probe presented at location of threat
Semantic processing Interpreting spoken homophones: for instance, 'die' versus 'dye' Broken-hearted subjects biased toward selecting threatening interpretation
Qualitative performance differences
Response to evaluative stress Functioning with evaluative instructions Anxiety relates to performance impairment when evaluated
Retentiveness strategies Complimentary retrieve of word lists Anxiety relates to reduced strategic reorganization of words

Other traits have been studied less extensively, and then that no detailed cerebral patterning may exist presented, merely in that location are several promising research areas. Within the FFM, there is accumulating show, ofttimes from an organizational perspective, suggesting that conscientiousness tends to chronicle to enhanced performance of a diverseness of tasks. The information-processing basis for these findings is unclear, just conscientiousness has been linked to effort and goal setting. Openness relates modestly to cognitive power, especially crystallized ability, and other tests with some intellectual content, including creativity tests. These relationships may be mediated by motivational factors, including 'typical intelligence engagement'; that is, more open individuals accept a greater interest in intellectual activities, supporting skill acquisition.

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Distress*

K. Matthews , in Encyclopedia of Stress (Second Edition), 2007

Other Traits

Various more narrowly defined traits are associated with vulnerability to distress. Spielberger's anxiety and depression measures are among the all-time known. According to Spielberger, trait anxiety represents a predisposition to experience transient state feet in threatening environments, but, consistent with interactionism, the trait-broken-hearted individual does not feel state anxiety on all occasions. Experimental studies suggest that trait anxiety correlates with state feet under conditions of ego threat, such as personal criticism. Negative affect is central to the definition of the Spielberger traits. Other traits such as optimism/pessimism, cocky-focus of attention, self-efficacy, and attributional fashion are cognitively defined, but correlate however with distress indices.

Distress-related traits tend to intercorrelate with one some other and also with broader measures of neuroticism and negative affectivity. One view is that the various traits predict distress because they overlap with neuroticism and that the narrower trait constructs may add little to the wide trait. It is plausible that neglect of neuroticism equally a derange of other traits has added unduly to the complexity of the field. Nevertheless, there is testify for discriminative validity for traits such as optimism/cynicism and self-focus of attention; distress is best predicted from multiple traits.

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